Organic and conventional agriculture: sustainability, productivity and climate

Abstract

Agriculture plays a dual role in the context of climate change, acting both as a major source of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions and as a potential solution for climate mitigation. In this regard, growing attention has been directed to production models that balance economic viability, food security, and low-carbon outcomes. This article provides a critical review of the most recent scientific evidence on the carbon footprint of organic versus conventional farming systems. The analysis encompasses multiple dimensions, including energy use, type of fertilization, specific emissions of CO₂, CH₄, and N₂O, productivity per hectare and per unit of output, transportation, and land-use change. Findings suggest that organic systems generally emit less GHG per unit area, mainly due to the absence of synthetic fertilizers and the adoption of soil-conserving practices. However, this advantage often diminishes or disappears when emissions are calculated per kilogram of food produced, owing to the typically lower yields of organic systems. The review concludes that organic farming holds relevant mitigation potential, provided it is integrated into broader strategies for land-use efficiency, dietary shifts, and public policies aimed at systemic agricultural sustainability.